software testing tata mcgraw hill pdf

The coordination meeting served as a heartbeat, rhythmically pumping new life into the teams processes. Because of these dangers, it is suggested that this process be done consciously and in a controlled manner. Measures that might ensure the reliability of the system include: use of mathematics-based specication languages to avoid ambiguity; developing parallel versions of the same software so that they can be cross-checked; statistical control of software testing to allow for the estimation of the reliability of the software. The version described here is in use in IBM and is described in A. Usability (right thing) dependencies. These are some of the activities in which use of automated tools can be of great help. The users themselves could be uncertain about what a proposed information system is to do. For example, in their MITP methodology, IBM recommend that the following ve levels should be used in a WBS: Level 1: Project. FIGURE C.10 The revised meline chart Appendix C Answer Pointers 367 9.2 Review versus testing Review is usually more cost-effective than testing for removing defects from a code module. The meeting allows them to communicate freely and to get ideas accepted. A product could even be a person, such as a trained user, a product of the process of training. Do you agree with the following statement? 236 So ware Project Management Lack of incentives for supplier The supplier has no incentive to work in a cost-effective manner or to control the scope of the deliverables. Would you advise going ahead with the project? Kalle Lyytinen and his colleagues, for instance, have proposed a sociotechnical model of risk, a diagrammatic representation of which appears in Figure 7.2. Each iteration enhances the implemented functionality of the application a little. Variants may also be required to be created when the software is intended to be used with different levels of sophistication of the functionalities (e.g., novice version, enterprise version, professional version, etc.). Were we to repeat the project a large number of times we would expect, on average, an income of 500,000 per annum. SSADM would be especially appropriate where the project employs a large number of development staff whose work will need to be coordinated: the method lays down in detail the activities and products needed at each step. Throw-away prototypes The prototype tests out some ideas and is then discarded when the true development of the operational system is commenced. For instance, in the IOE scenario, suppose the maintenance job reporting procedure varies considerably, depending on the type of equipment being serviced, because different inputs are needed to calculate the cost to IOE. Project 4 therefore stands out as being the most benecial as it earns the highest return. Undoing Changes It becomes easy to undo some part of a revision or even rollback development to a certain version. In fact, review has been acknowledged to be more cost-effective in removing defects as compared to testing. EXERCISE 5.1 Calculate the productivity (i.e. Information Retrieval ,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2009. Insert, Amend, Update, Display, Delete, Print. Hughes, Bob, Practical Software Measurement, London, McGraw-Hill, 2002. However, the large proportion of RFCs would be relatively small in scope. Whenever uncertainty is high, an evolutionary approach needs to be favoured. This might not be simply a matter of courtesy: under WTO or EU rules, there is a legal requirement to do this in certain circumstances. Various national and international standards bodies, including the British Standards Institution (BSI), have engaged in the creation of standards for quality management systems. Project Evaluation and Programme Management 41 2.11 Aids to Programme Management Dependency diagrams There will often be physical and technical dependencies between projects. She is a little concerned as the equipment maintenance staff are organized with different sections dealing with different types of equipment. A revised estimate of effort can be produced based on the broader range of effort modiers seen in Table 5.7. Where the potential damage and likelihood of a risk are dened by qualitative descriptors, the risk exposure cannot be calculated by multiplying the two factors together. 10.2 Types of Contract The external resources required could be in the form of services, for example staff on short-term contracts carrying out some project tasks. This can reduce some of the problems, noted earlier, of attempting to predict the external quality of the software from early design documents. If so, among other things, testing would become very important. Depending upon the number of probabilistic parameters and the ranges specied for them, a Monte Carlo simulation could involve thousands or even millions of calculations to complete. 3. A tool can also help a project manager effectively and efciently develop various charts such as GANTT and PERT charts. 44 So ware Project Management Economy The reduction of costs, other than those related to staff procurement policies might be put in place which encourage the consolidation of purchasing in order to take advantage of bulk-buying at discount. This can be done by estimating the risk exposure for each risk using the formula: risk exposure = (potential damage) 3 (probability of occurrence) Using the most rigorous but not necessarily the most practical approach, the potential damage would be assessed as a money value. (ii) Both task-oriented and people-oriented management would be needed with the trainee. Planning documents would, for example, be management products. 9. Say the planned total duration for the project is 23 months in earned value terminology this is the schedule at completion (SAC). 2023 OCLC Domestic and international trademarks and/or service marks of OCLC, Inc. and its affiliates. If the analysis is incorrect IOE could suffer nancially. Alternatively, and rather more easily, the present value of a cash ow may be calculated by multiplying the cash ow by the appropriate discount factor. Where project managers are new to the organization, they must nd out the precise nature of this infrastructure. TABLE 10.2 Examples of addi onal charges for changed func onality Pre-acceptance testing handover Post-acceptance testing handover Additional FPs 100% 100% Changed FPs 130% 150% Deleted FPs 25% 50% This table comes from the draft Acquisition of Customised Software Policy document, published by the Department of State Development, Victoria, 1996. As requirements are gathered, so this risk will diminish until it is no longer signicant. However, a concern for identifying best practice is valid. Unfortunately, researchers have not been consistent on points like does it include comment lines or are data declarations to be included? 7. These have to be scrutinized in order to plan and design the tests. Where the proposed system is a replacement, these estimates should reect the change in costs and benets due to the new system. It is therefore common practice to identify near-critical paths those whose lengths are within, say, 1020% of the duration of the critical path or those with a total oat of less than, say, 10% of the projects uncompleted duration. The internet allows these contractors to carry out well-dened tasks at their own premises without necessarily having to travel to their clients site. At IOE the specication of modules is carried out by the lead systems analyst for the project (who in this case is Amanda) assisted by junior analyst/designers. A summary of the features of these three tools is presented in Table B.1. The project is currently scheduled to take 12 months using permanent staff. However, it is very difcult to formulate a mathematical expression to characterize the reliability of a system in terms of the number of latent defects in it. Defect retest is also popularly called resolution testing. The disadvantages of this approach are: Difculties with software size measurement Lines of code can easily be inated by adopting a verbose coding style. 8.2 Drawing a revised resource histogram If the activities are scheduled at the earliest dates, then the plan still calls for four analyst/designers as shown in Figure C.7. Sometimes there are topics and standards which appear to be current and of which one feels people should be aware. Furthermore, a delay in completing one activity can delay the availability of a resource required for a later activity. If the design is acceptable the developers can then quote a price for the second, implementation, stage based on an agreed requirement. NPV and IRR are not, however, a complete answer to economic project evaluation. This is described later in this chapter. We will discuss quality management issues in Chapter 13. At the time of writing, a new standard in this area, ISO 25000, is being developed. Software Engineering: Abstraction and modelling by Diner Bjorner (Springer International Edition, 2006). Implementing process improvement The CMMI standard has now grown to over 500 pages. Risk reduction The insurance example might also be applicable here, but measures to protect an organizations networks and databases from intrusion and external malicious attack would be even more pertinent. Yet even if there were no such law, there would be very few who would not at least pay lip service to the moral obligation to prevent foreseeable injury to those at work. The detailed design of these units is carried out separately. Towards the end of a Stage, the detailed plan for the next Stage can be mapped out as a clearer idea of the project requirements emerges (SB1). The college authorities estimate there is a 50% chance that this could occur during the expected four-year lifetime of the system. Every interruption destroys ow and requires another 15 minutes for its recovery. If all the topics are covered, students will be comfortable answering the question paper during the examination. The remaining ones could be discussed with representatives of the suppliers in order to clarify and validate the technical proposals. It should be realized that wisdom is required on the part of the project manager and the stakeholders to determine when it is desirable to terminate a project otherwise it can only be a drag on the resources without achieving anything substantial. It may be in the customers interests to negotiate a more realistic period of, say, at least 120 days. 222 So ware Project Management Activities with no free oat A delay in any activity with no free oat will delay at least some subsequent activities even though, if the delay is less than the total oat, it might not delay the project completion date. Down, M. Coleman and P. Absolon (1994) Risk Management for Software Projects, McGraw-Hill. Partly this is because people with differing motivations might be interested in software quality, namely: acquirers who are obtaining software from external suppliers; developers who are building a software product; independent evaluators who are assessing the quality of a software product, not for themselves but for a community of users for example, those who might use a particular type of software tool as part of their professional practice. dealing with batched computer output). Where both types of project call upon the same pools of resources, including nance, the argument for a common portfolio is strong. Accepting what amounts to bribes is clearly an example of unacceptable behaviour. This consists of the following steps: identify the key (rst level) elements for assessment in a piece of work; break these key elements into constituent elements (second level); assess each of the second-level elements on the scale green for on target, amber for not on target but recoverable, and red for not on target and recoverable only with difculty; review all the second-level assessments to arrive at rst-level assessments; review rst- and second-level assessments to produce an overall assessment. However, ofces can be noisy places and while software development needs communication it also needs periods of solitary concentrated effort. Monitoring and Control 219 EXERCISE 9.4 Figure 9.12 shows Amandas earned value analysis at the start of week 12 of the project. Managing People in Software Environments 249 12. For a fuller treatment, the specialized literature should be consulted. 5. (a) Two team members overwriting each others work (b) Accidental deletion of work product (c) Unauthorized modications to a work product 10 OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter you will be able to: distinguish between the different types of contract; outline the contents of a contract for goods and services; plan the evaluation of a proposal or product; administer a contract from its signing until the nal acceptance of project completion. ISO 9126 also introduces another type of quality quality in use for which the following elements have been identied: So ware Quality 293 effectiveness: the ability to achieve user goals with accuracy and completeness; productivity: avoiding the excessive use of resources, such as staff effort, in achieving user goals; safety: within reasonable levels of risk of harm to people and other entities such as business, software, property and the environment; satisfaction: smiling users. With this type of development there are three separate teams: a specication team, which obtains the user requirements and also a usage prole estimating the volume of use for each feature in the system; a development team, which develops the code but which does no machine testing of the program code produced; a certication team, which carries out testing. Modes of communication can be categorized as combinations of two opposites: same time/different time and same place/different place see Table 12.1. However, in recent years the concept and practice of having dispersed or virtual teams have emerged. 316 So ware Project Management All the boxes shown in the right hand side of the V-process model of Figure 13.5 correspond to verication activities except the system testing block which corresponds to validation activity. One way of identifying the decision points is to divide a large project into increments. A manager is in charge of a sub-project of a larger project. The standard deviation for event 3 is therefore 0.33. A number of interrelated activities have to be undertaken to create a nal product. As we saw in Chapter 1, the people at the top will specify a general strategy, hopefully consistent with the aspirations of the mission statement. 7 OBJECTIVES When you have completed this chapter you will be able to: identify the factors putting a project at risk; categorize and prioritize actions for risk elimination or containment; quantify the likely effects of risk on project timescales. Weinberg, G. M., The Psychology of Computer Programming, Silver Anniversary Edition, New York, Dorset House, 1998. Therefore, it is required to reduce the testing time. If in-house payroll processing turns out not to be cost-effective, then the project should not try to implement such a solution. Brigette does not worry about timesheets but arranges an informal meeting with her colleagues each Monday morning to discuss how things are going and also arranges to see the vice-principal, who is her ofcial boss, and the heads of the nance and human resources sections each month to review progress in general terms. Thus, as much forethought and planning is needed with an acquisition project as with internal development. The framework described is called the Step Wise method to help to distinguish it from other methods such as PRINCE2. The discussions on topics such as software quality management, software testing, and life cycle models, have been strengthened by adding more depth. Staff costs These will include staff salaries as well as the other direct costs of employment such as the employers contribution to social security funds, pension scheme contributions, holiday pay and sickness benet. One suggestion is that known errors can be seeded in the software. The asterisk in the progress reports indicates that there will be new instances of the entity progress report created repeatedly throughout the project. Software Quality 13.1 Introduction 288 13.2 The Place of Software Quality in Project Planning 289 13.3 The Importance of Software Quality 290 13.4 Dening Software Quality 290 13.5 ISO 9126 292 13.6 Product and Process Metrics 298 13.7 Product versus Process Quality Management 298 13.8 Quality Management Systems 300 13.9 Process Capability Models 302 13.10 Techniques to Help Enhance Software Quality 310 13.11 Testing 314 13.12 Software Reliability 320 288 xiv Detailed Table of Contents 13.13 Quality Plans 321 Conclusion 321 Further Exercises 322 Appendix A Prince2An Overview 324 Appendix B Project Management Tools 335 Appendix C Answer Pointers 338 Further Reading 378 Index 383 This edition was necessitated by the requests received from a large number of practising professionals and teachers, and students of colleges across India, to incorporate a few important topics in the fth adapted edition of the book, which they felt would help make the book a more comprehensive read. However, there are several ways in which this might be done. Statistics are maintained so that the effectiveness of the inspection process can be monitored. She has little or no coercive power as she is not the manager of the staff involved. operational costs relating to operating the system after installation. A structured approach designed for information systems applications, such as SSADM, would be justied. Subsidiary chains feed into the critical chain where activity H links into the project buffer and where activity E links into G which is part of the critical chain. The intention is that the values that these and other ratings use in COCOMO II will be rened over time as actual project details are added to the database. Explain in detail. By discussing and trying to agree objectives with the various people involved, the true requirements of the project can be claried. Verication techniques help achieve phase containment of errors and provide a means to cost-effectively remove bugs. Benets can be of many different types, including; Mandatory compliance Governmental or European legislation might make certain changes mandatory. 11. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Preparing the fth edition of this book has reminded us that project management is not just a crucial element in successful software and IT development, but is also a fascinating topic in its own right. The training staff could be interviewed and their CVs examined. Sometimes, such constraints are unavoidable. Based on your analysis, point out if there are any situations where the pair programming technique may not be suitable. Consultation with the representatives of the various groups of stakeholders would be an essential part of this process. Key process areas Except for level 1, each maturity level is characterized by several Key Process Areas (KPAs). In Figure 7.3 the loss is effectively being measured in days rather than money. Software Engineering Lecture Notes given below gives the students all-important information besides the lecture notes. Revenue enhancement/acceleration The sooner bills reach customers, the sooner they can pay them. For handling small and simple projects, GPL software tools such as Ganttproject can be sufcient. The external group can produce a preliminary design at a xed fee. It is better if there is more than A standard form which one interview session with an applicant and within each session there should not be lists each selection crimore than two interviewers as a greater number reduces the possibility of follow-up terion and the degree to which the candiquestions and discussion. This is known as the risky shift. 7.10 Applying the PERT Technique Using PERT to evaluate the effects of uncertainty PERT was developed to take account of the uncertainty surrounding estimates of task durations. In order to illustrate the Step Wise approach and how it might have to be adapted to deal with different circumstances, two parallel examples are used. Advocates of JAD believe that these hot-house conditions can speed up communication and negotiation that might otherwise take several weeks or months. (f) Practical ways of measuring the desired qualities in the software have to be devised. An organization has detected low job satisfaction in the following departments: the system testing group; the computer applications help desk; computer batch input. (c) The requirement could be very complex and need considerable analysis, so initially different time/ different place communication involving studying and writing documents might be best. It should be remembered that SEI CMM can be used in two different ways, viz., capability evaluation and process assessment. In a situation like this it would be easier to bundle the activities into a single merged activity make training course arrangements which could be supplemented with a checklist. 2.4 Calculating the return on investment The return on investments for each of the projects is project 1: 10%, project 2: 2%, project 3: 10% and project 4: 12.5%. Software Testing - Srinivasan Desikan 2006 "Software Testing: Principles and Practices is a comprehensive treatise on software testing. Some of the main topics that students will study in the duration of the course are: Computer-Aided Software Engineering, Case and its Scope, Case Environment, Case Support in Software Life Cycle, Software Maintenance, Maintenance Process Models, Maintenance Cost, and Software Configuration Management. A resource dependency is where one activity has to wait for a resource (usually a person in software development) which is being used by another activity to become available. Note: Other products such as a testing plan would also have to be created in order to document the acceptance testing phase. Such a policy would seem to be incompatible with XP. As the original supplier has staff familiar with the existing system, it might be inconvenient to approach other potential suppliers via a full tendering process. The rst is a method of assessing the amount of the work needed. D. Karlstrm and P. Runeson (2005). EXERCISE 13.4 In what cases might the entry conditions for one activity be different from the exit conditions for another activity that immediately precedes it? FURTHER EXERCISES 1. Explain the concept of cyclomatic complexity measures with the help of an example. Efcient handling of the problems associated with manpower turnover Functional organizations help to effectively handle the problem of manpower turnover compared to a democratic organization. This can be done by shortening remaining activity durations or shortening the overall duration of the remaining project in the ways described in the next section.
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